Language and Society
Expert-defined terms from the Postgraduate Certificate in Linguistic Anthropology course at London School of Planning and Management. Free to read, free to share, paired with a globally recognised certification pathway.
Acculturation #
the process of cultural change that occurs when individuals or groups come into contact with a different culture and adopt some of its characteristics. This can involve changes in language, values, beliefs, customs, and behaviors. Acculturation can be voluntary or forced, and it can have both positive and negative effects on individuals and societies.
Code #
switching: the practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a single conversation or interaction. Code-switching is common in multilingual communities and can serve various functions, such as signaling group identity, emphasizing a point, or expressing emotions. For example, a bilingual speaker might switch from English to Spanish when talking to family members or friends.
Creole #
a stable natural language that has developed from a mixture of different languages. Creole languages often arise in situations of colonization, slavery, or trade, where speakers of different languages need to communicate with each other. Creoles typically have a simplified grammar and vocabulary compared to their parent languages.
Cultural relativism #
the principle that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture, rather than being judged against the criteria of another culture. Cultural relativism recognizes the diversity of human cultures and emphasizes the importance of understanding and respecting different ways of life.
Dialect #
a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of speakers. Dialects can differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic features. For example, American English has regional dialects such as Southern, New England, and Midwestern dialects.
Discourse #
language in use, including both spoken and written communication. Discourse analysis examines how language is used in social contexts to convey meaning, structure interactions, and shape identities. Discourse can be studied at various levels, from individual conversations to larger cultural narratives.
Ethnography #
a research method that involves observing and interacting with people in their natural environment to understand their culture, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies often focus on specific communities or social groups and can provide rich, detailed descriptions of everyday life.
Ethnolinguistics #
the study of the relationship between language and culture within a particular society or community. Ethnolinguists investigate how language is used to express cultural values, beliefs, and social relationships. They may also examine how language influences thought and behavior.
Globalization #
the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among people, cultures, and economies around the world. Globalization has led to the spread of ideas, technologies, and products across borders, as well as the emergence of global communication networks. It has also raised questions about cultural diversity and identity.
Language ideology #
beliefs and attitudes about language that reflect and shape social hierarchies, power dynamics, and cultural values. Language ideologies can influence how languages are perceived, used, and maintained within a society. For example, ideologies about "standard" and "nonstandard" dialects can affect language attitudes and policies.
Language planning #
the process of making decisions about the status, structure, and use of languages within a society. Language planning can involve choosing official languages, developing language policies, standardizing spelling and grammar, and promoting language education. It can be used to promote linguistic diversity, social cohesion, or economic development.
Language shift #
the process by which speakers of one language gradually shift to using another language for everyday communication. Language shift can occur due to various factors, such as colonization, migration, education, or media influence. It can lead to the endangerment or extinction of minority languages.
Language socialization #
the process by which individuals learn to use language in social contexts and to understand and interpret social meanings through language. Language socialization begins in early childhood and continues throughout life, as individuals acquire the linguistic skills and cultural knowledge needed to participate in their communities.
Linguistic landscape #
the visibility and presence of languages in public spaces, such as signs, advertisements, and street names. Linguistic landscape studies examine how languages are used and represented in urban environments, and how they reflect social, political, and economic relationships. Linguistic landscapes can reveal power dynamics, language policies, and cultural diversity.
Linguistic relativity #
the hypothesis that the structure of a language influences the way its speakers perceive and think about the world. Linguistic relativity suggests that different languages may encode reality in different ways, leading to differences in cognition, perception, and behavior. For example, speakers of languages with grammatical gender may perceive objects as masculine or feminine.
Linguistic variation #
differences in language use that occur within a speech community or across different communities. Linguistic variation can involve differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, or discourse style. Varieties of a language can be associated with factors such as region, social class, ethnicity, or age.
Multilingualism #
the ability to speak and understand two or more languages. Multilingualism is common in many parts of the world, where speakers may use multiple languages for different purposes or in different social contexts. Multilingual individuals may be fluent in multiple languages or have varying degrees of proficiency.
Pidgin #
a simplified language that emerges as a means of communication between speakers of different languages who do not share a common language. Pidgins typically have a reduced vocabulary and grammar compared to full-fledged languages. Pidgins can develop into creole languages if they become the primary means of communication for a community.
Power and language #
the relationship between language and social power, including how language can be used to exert control, influence, or dominance over others. Power dynamics in language can be seen in various contexts, such as education, politics, media, and everyday interactions. Language can be a tool for empowerment or marginalization.
Sapir #
Whorf hypothesis: a theory in linguistics that suggests that the structure of a language influences the way its speakers perceive and think about the world. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposes that language shapes cognition and perception, and that different languages may lead to different ways of understanding reality.
Semiotics #
the study of signs and symbols and their meanings in language and communication. Semiotics examines how signs are used to convey messages, represent concepts, and create meaning. Semiotic analysis can involve studying linguistic signs (such as words), visual signs (such as images), or nonverbal signs (such as gestures).
Social identity #
the way individuals define themselves in relation to social groups, based on factors such as ethnicity, gender, age, or language. Social identity influences how people perceive themselves and others, as well as how they interact with different social groups. Language can play a key role in shaping social identities.
Sociolinguistics #
the study of the relationship between language and society, including how language is used in social contexts, how it varies across different communities, and how it reflects social structures and relationships. Sociolinguists investigate language variation, language attitudes, language policy, and language change.
Standard language #
a variety of a language that is considered the "correct" or "prestigious" form, typically used in education, government, media, and other formal contexts. Standard languages are often based on the speech of educated elites and may be codified in dictionaries, grammar books, and language policies. Standard language norms can vary across different societies.
Language contact #
the situation in which speakers of different languages come into contact and interact with each other, leading to language borrowing, code-switching, pidginization, or creolization. Language contact can occur through processes such as colonization, trade, migration, or globalization. It can result in linguistic and cultural exchange between communities.
Language maintenance #
the efforts made by individuals or communities to preserve and continue using their native language, especially in the face of language shift or language endangerment. Language maintenance strategies can include language education, language revitalization programs, and community language events. Language maintenance is important for preserving linguistic diversity and cultural heritage.
Language policy #
a set of rules, guidelines, or decisions that govern the use, status, and development of languages within a society. Language policies can address issues such as language education, language rights, language planning, and language diversity. They can be implemented at the national, regional, or local level.
Language revitalization #
efforts to revive, preserve, or strengthen a language that is endangered or at risk of extinction. Language revitalization initiatives can involve language education, cultural programs, community events, and advocacy for language rights. Revitalizing endangered languages is important for maintaining linguistic diversity and cultural heritage.
Language variation #
differences in language use that occur within a speech community or across different communities. Language variation can involve differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, or discourse style. Varieties of a language can be associated with factors such as region, social class, ethnicity, or age.
Language acquisition #
the process by which individuals acquire the ability to understand and use a language. Language acquisition begins in early childhood and continues throughout life, as individuals learn to communicate in their native language(s) and acquire additional languages. Language acquisition involves both cognitive and social processes.
Language attitudes #
individuals' beliefs, feelings, and opinions about different languages and language varieties. Language attitudes can influence how languages are perceived, used, and valued within a society. Attitudes toward a language can be positive, negative, or ambivalent, and they can be influenced by factors such as social status, ideology, or identity.
Language maintenance #
the efforts made by individuals or communities to preserve and continue using their native language, especially in the face of language shift or language endangerment. Language maintenance strategies can include language education, language revitalization programs, and community language events. Language maintenance is important for preserving linguistic diversity and cultural heritage.
Language policy #
a set of rules, guidelines, or decisions that govern the use, status, and development of languages within a society. Language policies can address issues such as language education, language rights, language planning, and language diversity. They can be implemented at the national, regional, or local level.
Language revitalization #
efforts to revive, preserve, or strengthen a language that is endangered or at risk of extinction. Language revitalization initiatives can involve language education, cultural programs, community events, and advocacy for language rights. Revitalizing endangered languages is important for maintaining linguistic diversity and cultural heritage.
Language variation #
differences in language use that occur within a speech community or across different communities. Language variation can involve differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, or discourse style. Varieties of a language can be associated with factors such as region, social class, ethnicity, or age.
Language acquisition #
the process by which individuals acquire the ability to understand and use a language. Language acquisition begins in early childhood and continues throughout life, as individuals learn to communicate in their native language(s) and acquire additional languages. Language acquisition involves both cognitive and social processes.
Language attitudes #
individuals' beliefs, feelings, and opinions about different languages and language varieties. Language attitudes can influence how languages are perceived, used, and valued within a society. Attitudes toward a language can be positive, negative, or ambivalent, and they can be influenced by factors such as social status, ideology, or identity.
Language change #
the process by which languages evolve over time, resulting in changes in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic features. Language change can be driven by various factors, such as social interactions, technological advancements, language contact, or cultural shifts. It is a natural and ongoing process in all languages.
Language contact #
the situation in which speakers of different languages come into contact and interact with each other, leading to language borrowing, code-switching, pidginization, or creolization. Language contact can occur through processes such as colonization, trade, migration, or globalization. It can result in linguistic and cultural exchange between communities.
Language death #
the extinction of a language when there are no remaining speakers or users. Language death can occur due to various factors, such as language shift, cultural assimilation, or forced language policies. When a language dies, valuable cultural knowledge, traditions, and ways of thinking are lost.
Language documentation #
the systematic collection, description, and preservation of linguistic data about a language, including its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and usage. Language documentation is important for documenting endangered languages, preserving linguistic diversity, and promoting language revitalization efforts. It involves collaboration with speakers of the language.
Language maintenance #
the efforts made by individuals or communities to preserve and continue using their native language, especially in the face of language shift or language endangerment. Language maintenance strategies can include language education, language revitalization programs, and community language events. Language maintenance is important for preserving linguistic diversity and cultural heritage.
Language policy #
a set of rules, guidelines, or decisions that govern the use, status, and development of languages within a society. Language policies can address issues such as language education, language rights, language planning, and language diversity. They can be implemented at the national, regional, or local level.
Language revitalization #
efforts to revive, preserve, or strengthen a language that is endangered or at risk of extinction. Language revitalization initiatives can involve language education, cultural programs, community events, and advocacy for language rights. Revitalizing endangered languages is important for maintaining linguistic diversity and cultural heritage.
Language variation #
differences in language use that occur within a speech community or across different communities. Language variation can involve differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, or discourse style. Varieties of a language can be associated with factors such as region, social class, ethnicity, or age.
Language acquisition #
the process by which individuals acquire the ability to understand and use a language. Language acquisition begins in early childhood and continues throughout life, as individuals learn to communicate in their native language(s) and acquire additional languages. Language acquisition involves both cognitive and social processes.
Language attitudes #
individuals' beliefs, feelings, and opinions about different languages and language varieties. Language attitudes can influence how languages are perceived, used, and valued within a society. Attitudes toward a language can be positive, negative, or ambivalent, and they can be influenced by factors such as social status, ideology, or identity.
Language change #
the process by which languages evolve over time, resulting in changes in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic features. Language change can be driven by various factors, such as social interactions, technological advancements, language contact, or cultural shifts. It is a natural and ongoing process in all languages.
Language contact #
the situation in which speakers of different languages come into contact and interact with each other, leading to language borrowing, code-switching, pidginization, or creolization. Language contact can occur through processes such as colonization, trade, migration, or globalization. It can result in linguistic and cultural exchange between communities.
Language death #
the extinction of a language when there are no remaining speakers or users. Language death can occur due to various factors, such as language shift, cultural assimilation, or forced language policies. When a language dies, valuable cultural knowledge, traditions, and ways of thinking are lost.
Language documentation #
the systematic collection, description, and preservation of linguistic data about a language, including its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and usage. Language documentation is important for documenting endangered languages, preserving linguistic diversity, and promoting language revitalization efforts. It involves collaboration with speakers of the language.
Language endangerment #
the situation in which a language is at risk of disappearing or becoming extinct due to a lack of speakers, intergenerational transmission, or institutional support. Language endangerment can result from factors such as language shift, cultural assimilation, economic marginalization, or government policies. Many languages around the world are currently endangered.
Language planning #
the process of making decisions about the status, structure, and use of languages within a society. Language planning can involve choosing official languages, developing language policies, standardizing spelling and grammar, and promoting language education. It can be used to promote linguistic diversity, social cohesion, or economic development.
Linguistic landscape #
the visibility and presence of languages in public spaces, such as signs, advertisements, and street names. Linguistic landscape studies examine how languages are used and represented in urban environments, and how they reflect social, political, and economic relationships. Linguistic landscapes can reveal power dynamics, language policies, and cultural diversity.
Linguistic relativity #
the hypothesis that the structure of a language influences the way its speakers perceive and think about the world. Linguistic relativity suggests that different languages may encode reality in different ways, leading to differences in cognition, perception, and behavior. For example, speakers of languages with grammatical gender may perceive objects as masculine or feminine.
Linguistic variation #
differences in language use that occur within a speech community or across different communities. Linguistic variation can involve differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, or discourse style. Varieties of a language can be associated with factors such as region, social class, ethnicity, or age.
Metapragmatics #
the study of how language is used to talk about language itself, including the rules, norms, and conventions that govern communication. Metapragmatic awareness involves understanding and reflecting on the social and cultural aspects of language use, such as politeness, humor, or power dynamics. Metapragmatic knowledge is important for effective communication.
Multilingualism #
the ability to speak and understand two or more languages. Multilingualism is common in many parts of the world, where speakers may use multiple languages for different purposes or in different social contexts. Multilingual individuals may be fluent in multiple languages or have varying degrees of proficiency.
Pidgin #
a simplified language that emerges as a means of communication between speakers of different languages who do not share a common language. Pidgins typically have a reduced vocabulary and grammar compared to full-fledged languages. Pidgins can develop into creole languages if they become the primary means of communication for a community.
Power and language #
the relationship between language and social power, including how language can be used to exert control, influence, or dominance over others. Power dynamics in language can be seen in various contexts, such as education, politics, media, and everyday interactions. Language can be a tool for empowerment or marginalization.
Sapir #
Whorf hypothesis: a theory in linguistics that suggests that the structure of a language influences the way its speakers perceive and think about the world. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposes that language shapes cognition and perception, and that different languages may lead to different ways of understanding reality.
Semiotics #
the study of signs and symbols and their meanings in language and communication. Semiotics examines how